substitution as a grammatical cohesive device in english narrative in comparision with its translation into vietnamese = phép thế như phương tiện liên kết ngữ pháp trong văn trần thuật tiếng anh

6 hand, being aware of the differences between kinds of discourses indicates the unity of communicative intentions as a vital element of each of them. Consequently she suggests using terms ''text'' and ''discourse'' almost interchangeably betokening the former refers to the linguistic product, while the latter implies the entire dynamics of the processes. According to Cook (1994:7) novels, as well as short conversations or groans might be equally rightfully named discourses. Seven criteria which have to be fulfilled to qualify either a written or a spoken text as a discourse have been suggested by Beaugrande (1980). These include:  Cohesion - grammatical relationship between parts of a sentence essential for its interpretation;  Coherence - the order of statements relates one another by sense.  Intentionality - the message has to be conveyed deliberately and consciously;  Acceptability - indicates that the communicative product needs to be satisfactory in that the audience approves it;  Informativeness - some new information has to be included in the discourse;  Situationality - circumstances in which the remark is made are important;  Intertextuality - reference to the world outside the text or the interpreters'' schemata; Nowadays, however, not all of the above mentioned criteria are perceived as equally important in discourse studies, therefore some of them are valid only in certain methods of the research (Beaugrande 1980: 49). 1.1.2 Spoken and written discourse Talking and writing represent different modes of expressing linguistics meanings. As stated by Halliday (1985) “Speaking does not show clearly sentence 7 and paragraph boundaries or signal the move into direct quotation while writing leaves out the prosodic and paralinguistic contribution”. While written discourse comprises complete sentences with subordination, rich lexis and frequent modifications via adjectives and adverbs, spoken contains incomplete sentences. Although spoken and written discourses share the communicative functions, they serve various functions. The former is concerned with interact ional use and the latter with the transactional use (Brown and Yule, 1983: 13) By comparison, writing language is under no temporal, spatial pressure. The writer has time to choose lexical items, check words and structures to make necessary correction which is primarily concerned with the transactional use. Spoken language, as stated by Brown and Yule (1983), is the kind of language which is produced under some temporal, spatial pressure with the speaker’s monitoring of what it is that he has just said, determining his current phrase and simultaneously planning his next utterance and which is primarily concerned with the interactional use. There are three prominent features that can apply to distinguish written and spoken discourse. 1. Density: the density is the information volume presented. Evidently, written language is dense while spoken language is sparse. 2. Complexity of grammar: in spoken language grammar is not so important, but information. For written language, it is important to maintain enough information, appropriate grammatical structures as well as rational organization of sentences. 3. Grammatical metaphor: Written language presents rather few different verbs, whereas spoken language uses more verbs. These above characteristics are inherent in spoken and written language in whatever types of discourse. Written texts can be read out and heard such as letters, stories, novels, contracts, reports, speeches. Moreover, spoken discourse such as 8 lectures, lessons, interviews, conversations and so on can also be reserved in the form of writing. 1.1.3 Narrative Discourse Narrative discourse is a skill generally designed to entertain. It is typically oriented around characters and events and conforms to a superstructure that consists of the following elements: setting, complicating action, and resolution. Narrative discourse provides speakers the opportunity to express temporal progression, establish and maintain personal reference, and highlight certain events above others. This facilitates a more natural flow of information that represents normal communication. The assessment of narrative discourse has received notable attention in the speech-language literature. The study of discourse in individuals with compromised brain function offers a method for testing the interaction of the multiple cognitive processes such as attention, memory, and organization that involved in the production of discourse. Narrative discourse typically contains characteristics of cohesion. Cohesion is a semantic concept; it refers to relations of meaning that exist within a passage, spoken or written, and define it as a passage. Glosser (1993: 191) notes that discourse cohesion occurs via linguistic devices that index interconnections of multiple segments of the discourse. More specifically, cohesion occurs in narrative discourse via the use of cohesive markers, which are words that direct the listener to information found outside individual sentences. Therefore, cohesion is a semantic relationship between an element in the passage and some other element that is crucial to its translation. The cohesive marker creates a tie with the information found outside the sentence and establishes a meaning relationship across sentences within the passage. Halliday and Hasan (1976) proposed a methodology for cohesion analysis and noted that the basic concept employed in analyzing cohesion of a passage is that of the cohesive tie. The tie includes the cohesive element in addition to that which is presupposed by the cohesive element. Five categories of cohesive elements or 9 markers were defined by Halliday and Hasan: reference, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction, and lexical markers or general nouns. Reference consists of personal, demonstrative, and comparative pronouns (e.g., the motorbike belongs to her). Substitution is a relation in the wording rather than meaning. Substitutions are alternate words used in the place of a repetition of a particular item (e.g., Our television is broken. We need to buy a new one). Ellipsis is the omission of an item (e.g., Did you hear the news? No, only the weather). Conjunctions are cohesive indirectly as they express certain meanings that presuppose the presence of other discourse components. 1.1.4 Discourse Analysis Discourse analysis is a primarily linguistic study examining the use of language by its native population whose major concern is investigating language functions along with its forms, produced both orally and in writing. Moreover, identification of linguistic qualities of various genres, vital for their recognition and interpretation, together with cultural and social aspects which support its comprehension, is the domain of discourse analysis. To put it in another way, the branch of applied linguistics dealing with the examination of discourse attempts to find patterns in communicative products as well as and their correlation with the circumstances in which they occur, which are not explainable at the grammatical level (Carter 1993:23). Discourse analysis is a branch of linguistics that studies language use in relation to social factors that influence our daily interactions. It deals with the way people use language in its appropriate context. E.e, in certain ways to have certain affects; In order to construct versions of their expressions according to Yule (1996:83): “when it is restricted to linguistic issue, discourse analysis focuses on the record (spoken and written) of the process by which language is used in some contexts to express intention.” The focus of discourse is any form of written or a spoken language such as conversation, dialog, articles, books and so on. Discourse analysis is often described as “language in use” by means; the way of understanding 10 social interaction, and how written and spoken texts are used in a specific contexts to make meanings. “It tends to focus specifically on aspects of what is unsaid or unwritten (yet communicated) within the discourse being analyzed” (Yule, 1987:84). So discourse analysis is all what people perceive or think about any given topic. 1.2 Cohesion 1.2.1 The concept of cohesion The concept of cohesion is closely connected with text. It is defined as the grammatical and lexical relationship between different elements of a text. According to Yule (1996), a text is usually considered to have a certain structure which depends on factors quite different from those required in the structure of single sentence. Some among those factors are described in terms of cohesion, or the ties and connection which exist within a text. Halliday and Hasan (1976:4) also define cohesion in a similar way: "The concept of cohesion is a semantic one; it refers to relations of meaning that exist within a text, and that defines it as a text". They also point out that cohesion often occurs where the interpretation of some elements in the discourse is dependent on that of another. Baker (1992) relates cohesion to the study of textual equivalence defining it as “the network of lexical, grammatical, and other relations which provide links between various parts of a text”. The important role of cohesion is to build up sentences in any given text. This comes through the linking of different parts of a text to each other so that it gives a structure to a text. It helps in hanging sentences together in a logical way, for having a right meaning. So, cohesion has a relation with the broader concept of coherence. 1.2.2 Cohesion vs. Coherence The distinction between cohesion and coherence has not always been clarified partly because both terms come from the same verb cohere which means 11 sticking together. In fact, cohesion is the network of different kinds of formal relations that provide links between or among various parts of a text, and is expressed partly through the grammar and partly through the vocabulary. Coherence, in contrast, can be understood as the quality of being meaningful and unified. As for Nunan (1993), coherence is "the feeling that sequences of sentences or utterances seem to hang together". The concept of cohesion refers to relations of meaning that exist within the text, and that defines it as a text. Cohesion occurs where the interpretation of some element in the discourse dependent on that of another. Cohesion is the network of lexical, grammatical, and other relations which link various parts of a text. These relations or ties organize and, to some extent, create a text, for instance, by requiring the reader to interpret words and expressions by reference to other words and expressions in the surrounding sentences and paragraphs. Cohesion is a surface relation and it connects together the actual words and expressions that we can see or hear. Halliday and Hasan (1976) identify five main cohesive devices in English: reference, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction, and lexical cohesion. E.g. American Life Inc. pays the mortgage on each property from its own funds until the mortgage is paid in full. The Company‟s principals have made personal guarantees covering all debt and no debt is cross-collateralized among the properties and partnerships. Reading this example, we can understand that there is a link between „American Life Inc.‟ and „the Company‟’. Coherence, on the other hand, is defined as the relationships of various ideas in a text that are linked together to create a meaningful discourse. According to Nunan (1993) coherence is “the feeling that sequences of sentences or utterances seems to hang together and make sense. In short, coherence means the relationships